Method of inducing nucleation of a material

ABSTRACT

Methods of inducing nucleation of a material is provided. The disclosed methods comprise the steps of bringing the material to a temperature near or below a phase transition temperature and altering the pressure to induce nucleation of the material. The disclosed methods are useful in freeze-drying processes, particularly pharmaceutical freeze-drying processes.

CROSS REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATIONS

This application claims priority to U.S. provisional patent applicationSer. No. 60/771,868 filed on Feb. 10, 2006, the disclosure of which isincorporated by reference herein.

FIELD OF THE INVENTION

The present invention relates to a nucleation process, and moreparticularly, to a method of inducing nucleation of a phase transitionof a material wherein the material is initially brought to a temperaturenear or below a phase transition temperature and subsequentlyde-pressurized so as to induce nucleation of the material.

BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION

Controlling the generally random process of nucleation in the freezingstage of a lyophilization or freeze-drying process to both decreaseprocessing time necessary to complete freeze-drying and to increase theproduct uniformity from vial-to-vial in the finished product would behighly desirable in the art. In a typical pharmaceutical freeze-dryingprocess, multiple vials containing a common aqueous solution are placedon shelves that are cooled, generally at a controlled rate, to lowtemperatures. The aqueous solution in each vial is cooled below thethermodynamic freezing temperature of the solution and remains in asub-cooled metastable liquid state until nucleation occurs.

The range of nucleation temperatures across the vials is distributedrandomly between a temperature near the thermodynamic freezingtemperature and some value significantly (e.g., up to about 30° C.)lower than the thermodynamic freezing temperature. This distribution ofnucleation temperatures causes vial-to-vial variation in ice crystalstructure and ultimately the physical properties of the lyophilizedproduct. Furthermore, the drying stage of the freeze-drying process mustbe excessively long to accommodate the range of ice crystal sizes andstructures produced by the natural stochastic nucleation phenomenon.

Additives have been used to increase the nucleation temperature ofsub-cooled solutions. These additives can take many forms. It is wellknown that certain bacteria (e.g., Pseudomonas syringae) synthesizeproteins that help nucleate ice formation in sub-cooled aqueoussolutions. Either the bacteria or their isolated proteins can be addedto solutions to increase the nucleation temperature. Several inorganicadditives also demonstrate a nucleating effect; the most common suchadditive is silver iodide, AgI. In general, any additive or contaminanthas the potential to serve as a nucleating agent. Lyophilization vialsprepared in environments containing high particulate levels willgenerally nucleate and freeze at a lower degree of sub-cooling thanvials prepared in low particulate environments.

All the nucleating agents described above are labeled “additives,”because they change the composition of the medium in which they nucleatea phase transition. These additives are not typically acceptable ordesirable for FDA regulated and approved freeze-dried pharmaceuticalproducts. These additives also do not provide control over the time andtemperature when the vials nucleate and freeze. Rather, the additivesonly operate to increase the average nucleation temperature of thevials.

Ice crystals can themselves act as nucleating agents for ice formationin sub-cooled aqueous solutions. In the “ice fog” method, a humidfreeze-dryer is filled with a cold gas to produce a vapor suspension ofsmall ice particles. The ice particles are transported into the vialsand initiate nucleation when they contact the fluid interface.

The “ice fog” method does not control the nucleation of multiple vialssimultaneously at a controlled time and temperature. In other words, thenucleation event does not occur concurrently or instantaneously withinall vials upon introduction of the cold vapor into the freeze-dryer. Theice crystals will take some time to work their way into each of thevials to initiate nucleation, and transport times are likely to bedifferent for vials in different locations within the freeze-dryer. Forlarge scale industrial freeze-dryers, implementation of the “ice fog”method would require system design changes as internal convectiondevices may be required to assist a more uniform distribution of the“ice fog” throughout the freeze-dryer. When the freeze-dryer shelves arecontinually cooled, the time difference between when the first vialfreezes and the last vial freezes will create a temperature differencebetween the vials, which will increase the vial-to-vial non-uniformityin freeze-dried products.

Vial pre-treatment by scoring, scratching, or roughening has also beenused to lower the degree of sub-cooling required for nucleation. As withthe other prior art methods, vial pre-treatment also does not impart anydegree of control over the time and temperature when the individualvials nucleate and freeze, but instead only increases the averagenucleation temperature of all vials.

Vibration has also been used to nucleate a phase transition in ametastable material. Vibration sufficient to induce nucleation occurs atfrequencies above 10 kHz and can be produced using a variety ofequipment. Often vibrations in this frequency range are termed“ultrasonic,” although frequencies in the range 10 kHz to 20 kHz aretypically within the audible range of humans. Ultrasonic vibration oftenproduces cavitation, or the formation of small gas bubbles, in asub-cooled solution. In the transient or inertial cavitation regime, thegas bubbles rapidly grow and collapse, causing very high localizedpressure and temperature fluctuations. The ability of ultrasonicvibration to induce nucleation in a metastable material is oftenattributed to the disturbances caused by transient cavitation. The othercavitation regime, termed stable or non-inertial, is characterized bybubbles that exhibit stable volume or shape oscillations withoutcollapse. U.S. Patent Application 20020031577 A1 discloses thatultrasonic vibration can induce nucleation even in the stable cavitationregime, but no explanation of the phenomenon is offered. GB PatentApplication 2400901A also discloses that the likelihood of causingcavitation, and hence nucleation, in a solution using vibrations withfrequencies above 10 kHz may be increased by reducing the ambientpressure around the solution or dissolving a volatile fluid in thesolution.

An electrofreezing method has also been used in the past to inducenucleation in sub-cooled liquids. Electrofreezing is generallyaccomplished by delivering relatively high electric fields (˜1 V/nm) ina continuous or pulsed manner between narrowly spaced electrodesimmersed in a sub-cooled liquid or solution. Drawbacks associated withan electrofreezing process in typical lyophilization applicationsinclude the relative complexity and cost to implement and maintain,particularly for lyophilization applications using multiple vials orcontainers. Also, electrofreezing cannot be directly applied tosolutions containing ionic species (e.g., NaCl).

Recently, there are studies that examine the concept of ‘vacuum-inducedsurface freezing’ (See e.g., U.S. Pat. No. 6,684,524). In such ‘vacuuminduced surface freezing’, vials containing an aqueous solution areloaded on a temperature controlled shelf in a freeze-dryer and heldinitially at about 10 degrees Celsius. The freeze-drying chamber is thenevacuated to near vacuum pressure (e.g., 1 mbar) which causes surfacefreezing of the aqueous solutions to depths of a few millimeters.Subsequent release of vacuum and decrease of shelf temperature below thesolution freezing point allows growth of ice crystals from thepre-frozen surface layer through the remainder of the solution. A majordrawback for implementing this ‘vacuum induced surface freezing’ processin a typical lyophilization application is the high risk of violentlyboiling or out-gassing the solution under stated conditions.

Improved control of the nucleation process can enable the freezing ofall unfrozen pharmaceutical solution vials in a freeze-dryer to occurwithin a more narrow temperature and time range, thereby yielding alyophilized product with greater uniformity from vial-to-vial.Controlling the minimum nucleation temperature can affect the icecrystal structure formed within the vial and allow for a greatlyaccelerated freeze-drying process.

Therefore, a need exists for controlling the random process ofnucleation in various freezing processes including the freezing stage ofa freeze-drying or lyophilization process to both decrease processingtime necessary to complete freeze-drying and improve the productuniformity from vial-to-vial in the finished product. It would thereforebe desirable to provide a process that possesses some, or preferablyall, of the above characteristics.

SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION

The present invention may be characterized as a method for inducingnucleation of a phase transition in a material, the method comprisingthe steps of bringing the material to a temperature near or below aphase transition temperature of the material and decreasing the pressureto induce nucleation of the phase transition in the material.

The invention may also be characterized as a method of controlling thefreezing process of a material comprising the steps of: cooling thematerial at a prescribed cooling rate; rapidly decreasing the pressureto induce nucleation of freezing within the material; and continuingcooling of the nucleated material to a prescribed final temperature tofreeze the material. Depressurization is initiated when the material orsolution attains a desired nucleation temperature or at a desired timeafter initiation of the cooling step.

The invention may be further characterized as a solidification processcomprising the steps of: cooling a material to a temperature near orbelow a phase transition temperature; rapidly decreasing the pressureproximate the material to induce nucleation within the material; andcontinuing cooling of the nucleated material to a prescribed finaltemperature to further solidification.

Finally, the invention may be characterized as a method of controllingthe condensation process of a gas comprising the steps of: cooling thegas to a temperature near or below a phase transition temperature;rapidly decreasing the pressure to induce nucleation within the gas; andcontinuing cooling of the nucleated gas to a prescribed finaltemperature to condense the gas.

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS

The above and other aspects, features, and advantages of the presentinvention will be more apparent from the following, more detaileddescription thereof, presented in conjunction with the followingdrawings, wherein:

FIG. 1 is a graph depicting the temperature versus time plot of asolution undergoing a stochastic nucleation process and further showingthe range of nucleation temperatures of the solution;

FIG. 2 is a graph depicting the temperature versus time plot of asolution undergoing an equilibrated cooling process with depressurizednucleation in accordance with the present methods; and

FIG. 3 is a graph depicting the temperature versus time plot of asolution undergoing a dynamic cooling process with depressurizednucleation in accordance with the present methods.

DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE INVENTION

Nucleation is the onset of a phase transition in a small region of amaterial. For example, the phase transition can be the formation of acrystal from a liquid. The crystallization process (i.e., formation ofsolid crystals from a solution) often associated with freezing of asolution starts with a nucleation event followed by crystal growth.

In the crystallization process, nucleation is the step where selectedmolecules dispersed in the solution or other material start to gather tocreate clusters in the nanometer scale as to become stable under thecurrent operating conditions. These stable clusters constitute thenuclei. The clusters need to reach a critical size in order to becomestable nuclei. Such critical size is usually dictated by the operatingconditions such as temperature, contaminants, degree of supersaturation,etc. and can vary from one sample of the solution to another. It isduring the nucleation event that the atoms in the solution arrange in adefined and periodic manner that defines the crystal structure.

Crystal growth is the subsequent growth of the nuclei that succeed inachieving the critical cluster size. Depending upon the conditionseither nucleation or crystal growth may predominate over the other, andas a result, crystals with different sizes and shapes are obtained.Control of crystal size and shape constitutes one of the main challengesin industrial manufacturing, such as for pharmaceuticals.

The present method relates to a process for controlling the time and/ortemperature at which a nucleated phase transition occurs in a material.In freezing applications, the probability that a material willspontaneously nucleate and begin changing phase is related to the degreeof sub-cooling of the material and the absence or presence ofcontaminants, additives, structures, or disturbances that provide a siteor surface for nucleation.

The freezing or solidification step is particularly important in thefreeze-drying process where existing techniques result in nucleationtemperature differences across a multitude of vials or containers. Thenucleation temperature differences tend to produce a non-uniform productand an excessively long drying time. The present methods, on the otherhand, provide a higher degree of process control in batch solidificationprocesses (e.g., freeze-drying) and produce a product with more uniformstructure and properties. Unlike some of the prior art techniques toinduce nucleation, the present methods require minimal equipment andoperational changes for implementation.

In principle, the present methods can be applied to any materialprocessing step that involves a nucleated phase transition. Examples ofsuch processes include the freezing of a liquid, crystallization of icefrom an aqueous solution, crystallization of polymers and metals frommelts, crystallization of inorganic materials from supersaturatedsolutions, crystallization of proteins, artificial snow production,deposition of ice from vapor, food freezing, freeze concentration,fractional crystallization, cryopreservation, or condensation of vaporsto liquids. From a conceptual standpoint, the present methods may alsobe applied to phase transitions such as melting and boiling.

The presently disclosed method represents an improvement to currentpharmaceutical lyophilization processes. For example, within a largeindustrial freeze-dryer there can be over 100,000 vials containing apharmaceutical product that needs to be frozen and dried. Currentpractice in the industry is to cool the solution to a very high degreeso that the solution in all vials or containers in the freeze-dryer areguaranteed to freeze. The content of each vial or container, however,freezes randomly over a range of temperatures below the freezing point,because the nucleation process is uncontrolled.

Turning now to the Figures, and in particular FIG. 1, there is depicteda temperature versus time plot of six vials of an aqueous solutionundergoing a conventional stochastic nucleation process showing thetypical range of nucleation temperatures of the solution within thevials (11,12,13,14,15, and 16). As seen therein, the vial contents havea thermodynamic freezing temperature of about 0° C. yet the solutionwithin each vial naturally nucleates over the broad temperature range ofabout −7° C. to −20 C. or more, as highlighted by area 18. Plot 19represents the shelf temperature inside the freeze-drying chamber.

Conversely, FIG. 2 and FIG. 3 depict temperature versus time plots of asolution undergoing a freezing process with depressurized nucleation inaccordance with the present methods. In particular, FIG. 2 shows thetemperature versus time plot of six vials of an aqueous solutionundergoing an equilibrated cooling process (See Example 2) withnucleation induced via depressurization of the chamber (21,22,23,24,25,and 26). The vial contents have a thermodynamic freezing temperature ofabout 0° C. yet the solution within each vial nucleates at the same timeupon depressurization and within a very narrow temperature range (i.e.,−40° C. to −5° C.) as seen in area 28. Plot 29 represents the shelftemperature inside the freeze-drying chamber and depicts an equilibratedfreezing process, one where the temperature of the shelves is held moreor less steady prior to depressurization.

Similarly, FIG. 3 shows the temperature versus time plot of three vialsof an aqueous solution undergoing a dynamic cooling process (See Example7) with nucleation induced via depressurization of the chamber (31,32,and 33). Again, the vial contents have a thermodynamic freezingtemperature of about 0° C. yet the solution within each vial nucleatesat the same time upon depressurization at a temperature range of about−7° C. to −10° C. as seen in area 38. Plot 39 represents the shelftemperature inside the freeze-drying chamber and generally depicts adynamic cooling process, one where the temperature of the shelves isactively lowered during or prior to depressurization.

As illustrated in the Figures, the present methods provide improvedcontrol of the nucleation process by enabling the freezing ofpharmaceutical solutions in a freeze-dryer to occur within a more narrowtemperature range (e.g., about 0° C. to −10° C.) and/or concurrently,thereby yielding a lyophilized product with greater uniformity fromvial-to-vial. While not demonstrated, it is foreseeable that the inducednucleation temperature range may even extend slightly above the phasetransition temperature and may also extend to about 40° C. ofsub-cooling.

Another benefit associated with the present methods is that bycontrolling the lowest nucleation temperature and/or the precise time ofnucleation one can affect the ice crystal structure formed within thefrozen vials or containers. The ice crystal structure is a variable thataffects the time it takes for the ice to sublimate. Thus, by controllingthe ice crystal structure, it is possible to greatly accelerate theoverall freeze-drying process.

In a broad sense, the presently disclosed methods for inducingnucleation of a phase transition within material comprise the steps of:(i) cooling the material to a temperature near or below a phasetransition temperature of the material; and (ii) rapidly decreasing thepressure to induce nucleation of the material. Each of these importantsteps will be discussed in more detail below.

Step 1—Cooling the Material

Illustrative materials useful in the present method include puresubstances, gases, suspensions, gels, liquids, solutions, mixtures, orcomponents within a solution or mixture. Suitable materials for use inthe present method may include, for example, pharmaceutical materials,biopharmaceutical materials, foodstuffs, chemical materials, and mayinclude products such as wound-care products, cosmetics, veterinaryproducts and in vivo/in vitro diagnostics related products and the like.When the material is a liquid, it may be desirable to dissolve gasesinto the liquid. Liquids in a controlled gas environment will generallyhave gases dissolved in them.

Other illustrative materials useful in the present method includebiological or biopharmaceutical material such as tissues, organs andmulti-cellular structures. For certain biological and pharmaceuticalapplications, the material may be a solution or mixture that includes: alive or attenuated viruses; nucleic acids; monoclonal antibodies;polyclonal antibodies; biomolecules; nonpeptide analogues; peptides,including polypeptides, peptide mimetics and modified peptides;proteins, including fusion and modified proteins; RNA, DNA andsubclasses thereof; oligonucleotides; viral particles; and similar suchmaterials or components thereof.

Pharmaceutical or biopharmaceutical solutions contained in vials orcontainers for freeze-drying would be a good example of a material thatwould benefit from the present method. The solutions are mostly waterand are substantially incompressible. Such pharmaceutical orbiopharmaceutical solutions are also highly pure and generally free ofparticulates that may form sites for nucleation. Uniform nucleationtemperature is important to creating a consistent and uniform icecrystal structure from vial to vial or container to container. The icecrystal structure developed also greatly affects the time required fordrying.

As applied to a freeze-drying process, the material is preferably placedin a chamber, such as a freeze-drying chamber. Preferably, the chamberis configured so as to allow control of the temperature, pressure, andgas atmosphere within the chamber. The gas atmosphere may include, butis not limited to: argon, nitrogen, helium, air, water vapor, oxygen,carbon dioxide, carbon monoxide, nitrous oxide, nitric oxide, neon,xenon, krypton, methane, hydrogen, propane, butane, and the like,including permissible mixtures thereof. The preferred gas atmospherecomprises an inert gas, such as argon, at a pressure between about 7 toabout 50 psig or more. Temperatures within the freeze-dryer chamber areoften dictated by the freeze-drying process and are easily controlledvia the use of a heat transfer fluid that cools or warms the shelveswithin the chamber to drive the temperature of the vials or containersand the material within each vial or container.

In accordance with the present methods, the material is cooled to atemperature near or below its phase transition temperature. In the caseof an aqueous based solution undergoing a freeze-drying process, thephase transition temperature is the thermodynamic freezing point of thesolution. Where the solution reaches temperatures below thethermodynamic freezing point of the solution, it is said to besub-cooled. When applied to a freezing process of an aqueous-basedsolution, the present method is effective when the degree of sub-coolingranges from near or below the phase transition temperature up to about40° C. of sub-cooling, and more preferably between about 3° C. ofsub-cooling and 10° C. of sub-cooling. In some of the examples describedbelow, the present method of inducing nucleation works desirably evenwhere the solution has only about 1° C. of sub-cooling below itsthermodynamic freezing point.

Where the material is at a temperature below its phase transitiontemperature, it is often referred to as being in a metastable state. Ametastable state is an unstable and transient, but relativelylong-lived, state of a chemical or biological system. A metastablematerial temporarily exists in a phase or state that is not itsequilibrium phase or state. In the absence of any changes in thematerial or its environment, a metastable material will eventuallytransition from its non-equilibrium state to its equilibrium state.Illustrative metastable materials include super-saturated solutions andsub-cooled liquids.

A typical example of a metastable material would be liquid water atatmospheric pressure and a temperature of −10° C. With a normal freezingpoint of 0° C., liquid water should not thermodynamically exist at thistemperature and pressure, but it can exist in the absence of anucleating event or structure to begin the ice crystallization process.Extremely pure water can be cooled to very low temperatures (−30° C. to−40° C.) at atmospheric pressure and still remain in the liquid state.Such sub-cooled water is in a non-equilibrated thermodynamicallymetastable state. It only lacks a nucleation event to cause it to beginthe phase transition whereby it will return to equilibrium.

As discussed above, the present methods of inducing nucleation of aphase transition within a material or freezing a material can beutilized with various cooling profiles, including, for example, anequilibrated cooling environment or a dynamic cooling environment (SeeFIGS. 2 and 3).

Step 2—Rapidly Decreasing the Pressure

When the material has reached the desired temperature near or below thephase transition temperature, the chamber is quickly or rapidlydepressurized. This depressurization triggers the nucleation and phasetransition of the solution within the vials or containers. In thepreferred embodiment, chamber depressurization is accomplished byopening or partially opening a large control valve that separates thehigh pressure chamber from either the ambient environment or a lowerpressure chamber or environment. The elevated pressure is quicklylowered by mass flow of gas atmosphere out of the chamber. Thedepressurization needs to be fairly fast to induce the nucleation. Thedepressurization should be finished in several seconds or less,preferably 40 seconds or less, more preferably 20 seconds or less, andmost preferably 10 seconds or less.

In typical freeze-drying applications, the pressure difference betweenthe initial chamber pressure and the final chamber pressure, afterdepressurization, should be greater than about 7 psi, although smallerpressure drops may induce nucleation in some situations. Most commercialfreeze-dryers can readily accommodate the range of pressure drops neededto control nucleation. Many freeze-dryers are designed with pressureratings in excess of 25 psig to withstand conventional sterilizationprocedures employing saturated steam at 121° C. Such equipment ratingsprovide an ample window to induce nucleation following protocols thatdepressurize from starting pressures above ambient pressure or thepressure in the surrounding environment. The elevated pressure andsubsequent depressurization can be achieved through any known means(e.g., pneumatic, hydraulic, or mechanical). In the preferredembodiments, operating pressures for the present methods should remainbelow the supercritical pressure of any applied gas, and subjecting thematerial to extreme low pressures (i.e., about 10 mTorr or less) shouldbe avoided during nucleation of the material.

While not wishing to be bound to any particular mechanism, one possiblemechanism to explain the controlled nucleation observed in the practiceof the present method is that gases in solution in the material come outof solution upon depressurization and form bubbles that nucleate thematerial. An initial elevated pressure increases the concentration ofdissolved gas in the solution. The rapid decrease in pressure aftercooling reduces the gas solubility, and the subsequent release of gasfrom the sub-cooled solution triggers nucleation of the phasetransition.

Another possible mechanism is that the temperature decrease of the gasproximate the material during depressurization causes a cold spot on thesurface of the material that initiates nucleation. Another possiblemechanism is that the depressurization causes evaporation of some liquidin the material and the resultant cooling from the endothermicevaporation process may initiate the nucleation. Another possiblemechanism is that the depressurized cold gas proximate the materialfreezes some vapor either in equilibrium with the material prior todepressurization or liberated from the material by evaporation duringdepressurization; the resultant solid particles re-enter the materialand act as seeds or surfaces to initiate nucleation. One or more ofthese mechanisms may contribute to initiation of nucleation of freezingor solidification to differing extents depending on the nature of thematerial, its environment and the phase transition being nucleated.

The process may be carried out entirely at a pressure greater thanambient pressure or over a range of pressures spanning ambient pressure.For example, initial chamber pressure can be above ambient pressure andthe final chamber pressure, after depressurization, can be above ambientpressure but less than the initial chamber pressure; the initial chamberpressure can be above ambient pressure and the final chamber pressure,after depressurization, can be about ambient pressure or slightly belowambient pressure.

The rate and magnitude of the pressure drop are also believed to be animportant aspect of the present methods. Experiments have shown thatnucleation will be induced where the pressure drop (ΔP) is greater thanabout 7 psi. Alternatively, the magnitude of the pressure drop may beexpressed as an absolute pressure ratio, R=P_(i)/P_(f), where P_(i) isinitial absolute pressure and P_(f) is final absolute pressure. It isbelieved that nucleation may be induced upon depressurization where theabsolute pressure ratio, R, is greater than about 1.2 in many practicalapplications of the present methods. The rate of pressure drop alsoplays an important role in the present methods. One method ofcharacterizing the rate of pressure drop is through use of a parameter,A, where A=ΔP/Δt. Again, it is surmised that nucleation will be inducedfor values of A greater than a prescribed value, such as about 0.2psi/sec. Empirical data through experimentation should aid one toascertain the preferred pressure drop and rate of pressure drop.

The following examples highlight various aspects and features of thepresently disclosed methods of inducing nucleation in a material and arenot to be taken in a limiting sense. Rather, these examples areillustrative only and the scope of the invention should be determinedonly with respect to the claims, appended hereto.

EXAMPLES

All examples described herein were performed in a pilot-scale VirTis51-SRC freeze-dryer having four shelves with approximately 1.0 m² totalshelf space and an internal condenser. This unit was retrofitted to holdpositive pressures of up to about 15 psig. A 1.5″ diameter circularopening also was added to the rear wall of the freeze-drying chamberwith 1.5″ diameter stainless steel tubing extending from the holethrough the rear wall insulation to emerge from the back of thefreeze-dryer. Two 1.5″ full-port, air-actuated ball valves were attachedto this tubing via sanitary fittings. One ball valve allowed gas to flowinto the freeze-drying chamber and thereby provide positive pressures upto 15 psig. The second ball valve allowed gas to flow out of thefreeze-drying chamber and thereby reduce chamber pressure to atmosphericconditions (0 psig). All refrigeration of the freeze-dryer shelves andcondenser was accomplished via circulation of Dynalene MV heat transferfluid cooled by liquid nitrogen using the Praxair NCool™-HX system.

All solutions were prepared in a class 100 clean room. The freeze-dryerwas positioned with the door, shelves, and controls all accessible fromthe clean room while the other components (pumps, heaters, etc.) werelocated in a non-clean room environment. All solutions were preparedwith HPLC grade water (Fisher Scientific, filtered through 0.10 μmmembrane). The final solutions were filtered through a 0.22 μm membraneprior to filling the vials or lyophilization containers. All gases weresupplied via cylinders and were filtered through 0.22 μm filters toremove particulates. The glass containers (5 mL vials and 60 mL bottles)were obtained pre-cleaned for particulates from Wheaton ScienceProducts. Pharmaceutically acceptable carriers were used whereappropriate. The above steps were taken to ensure the materials andmethods met conventional pharmaceutical manufacturing standards forparticulates, which act as nucleating agents.

As used herein, “pharmaceutically acceptable carrier” includes any andall solvents, dispersion media, antioxidants, salts, coatings,surfactants, preservatives (e.g., methyl or propyl p-hydroxybenzoate,sorbic acid, antibacterial agents, antifungal agents), isotonic agents,solution retarding agents (e.g., paraffin), absorbents (e.g., kaolinclay, bentonite clay), drug stabilizers (e.g., sodium lauryl sulphate),gels, binders (e.g., syrup, acacia, gelatin, sorbitol, tragacanth,polyvinyl pyrrolidone, carboxy-methyl-cellulose, alginates), excipients(e.g., lactose, milk sugar, polyethylene glycol), disintegration agent(e.g., agar-agar, starch, lactose, calcium phosphate, calcium carbonate,alginic acid, sorbitol, glycine), wetting agents (e.g., cetyl alcohol,glycerol monostearate), lubricants, absorption accelerators (e.g.,quaternary ammonium salts), edible oils (e.g., almond oil, coconut oil,oily esters or propylene glycol), sweetening agents, flavoring agents,coloring agents, fillers, (e.g., starch, lactose, sucrose, glucose,mannitol), tabletting lubricants (e.g., magnesium stearate, starch,glucose, lactose, rice flower, chalk), carriers for inhalation (e.g.,hydrocarbon propellants), buffering agents, or such like materials andcombinations thereof, as would be known to one of ordinary skill in theart.

For the experimental conditions described herein and all lyophilizationformulations studied, stochastic nucleation was typically observed tooccur at container temperatures between about −8° C. and −20° C. andoccasionally as warm as −5° C. The containers could generally be held attemperatures warmer than −8° C. for long periods of time withoutnucleating. The onset of nucleation and subsequent crystal growth (i.e.,freezing) was determined by temperature measurement as the point atwhich the container temperature quickly increased in response to theexothermic latent heat of fusion. The initiation of freezing also couldbe visually determined through a sight-glass on the freeze-dryer chamberdoor.

Example 1 Controlling the Nucleation Temperature

Four separate vials were filled with 2.5 mL of 5 wt % mannitol solution.The predicted thermodynamic freezing point of the 5 wt % mannitolsolution is approximately −0.5° C. The four vials were placed on afreeze-dryer shelf in close proximity to one another. The temperaturesof the four vials were monitored using surface mounted thermocouples.The freeze-dryer was pressurized with argon to 14 psig.

The freeze-dryer shelf was cooled to obtain vial temperatures of betweenapproximately −1.3° C. and about −2.3° C. (±1° C. measurement accuracyof the thermocouples). The freeze-dryer was then depressurized fromabout 14 psig to about atmospheric pressure in less than five seconds toinduce nucleation of the solution within the vials. All four vialsnucleated and began freezing immediately after depressurization. Resultsare summarized in Table 1 below.

As seen in Table 1, the controlled nucleation temperatures in thisexample (i.e., Initial Vial Temperatures) are quite close to thepredicted thermodynamic freezing point of the solution. Thus the presentmethod allows control of the nucleation to occur in solutions that havea very low degree of sub-cooling or at nucleation temperatures near oronly slightly colder than their freezing points.

TABLE 1 Controlling the Nucleation Temperature. Initial Vial TemperaturePressure Depressurization Vial # Solution Atmos [° C.] Drop [psi]Outcome 1 2.5 mL of 5 wt % mannitol Argon −2.3 14 Nucleation 2 2.5 mL of5 wt % mannitol Argon −1.3 14 Nucleation 3 2.5 mL of 5 wt % mannitolArgon −2.1 14 Nucleation 4 2.5 mL of 5 wt % mannitol Argon −1.7 14Nucleation

Example 2 Controlling the Nucleation Temperature

In this example, ninety-five vials were filled with 2.5 mL of 5 wt %mannitol solution. The thermodynamic freezing point of the 5 wt %mannitol solution is approximately −0.5° C. The ninety-five vials wereplaced on a freeze-dryer shelf in close proximity to one another. Thetemperatures of six vials positioned at different locations in thefreeze-dryer shelf were continuously monitored using surface mountedthermocouples. The freeze-dryer was pressurized in an argon atmosphereto about 14 psig. The freeze-dryer shelf was then cooled to obtain vialtemperatures of near −5° C. The freeze-dryer was then depressurized fromabout 14 psig to about atmospheric pressure in less than five seconds toinduce nucleation of the solution within the vials. All ninety-fivevials were visually observed to nucleate and begin freezing immediatelyafter depressurization. Thermocouple data for the six monitored vialsconfirmed the visual observation. The results are summarized in Table 2.

As seen therein, controlled nucleation temperatures in this example(i.e., Initial Vial Temperatures) are somewhat below the predictedthermodynamic freezing point of the solution. Thus the present methodallows control of the nucleation to occur in solutions that have amoderate degree of sub-cooling. This example also demonstratesscalability of the present method to a multiple vial application.

TABLE 2 Controlling the Nucleation Temperature. Initial Vial TemperaturePressure Depressurization Vial # Solution Atmos [° C.] Drop [psi]Outcome 1 2.5 mL of 5 wt % mannitol Argon −4.2 14 Nucleation 2 2.5 mL of5 wt % mannitol Argon −4.4 14 Nucleation 3 2.5 mL of 5 wt % mannitolArgon −4.6 14 Nucleation 4 2.5 mL of 5 wt % mannitol Argon −4.4 14Nucleation 5 2.5 mL of 5 wt % mannitol Argon −4.6 14 Nucleation 6 2.5 mLof 5 wt % mannitol Argon −5.1 14 Nucleation

Example 3 Controlling the Depressurization Magnitude

In this example, multiple vials were filled with 2.5 mL of 5 wt %mannitol solution. Again, the predicted thermodynamic freezing point ofthe 5 wt % mannitol solution is approximately −0.5° C. For each testrun, the vials were placed on a freeze-dryer shelf in close proximity toone another. As with the earlier described examples, the temperatures ofvials were monitored using surface mounted thermocouples. The argonatmosphere in the freeze-dryer was pressurized to differing pressuresand the freeze-dryer shelf was cooled to obtain vial temperatures ofabout −5° C. In each test run, the freeze-dryer was then rapidlydepressurized (i.e., in less than five seconds) from the selectedpressure to atmospheric pressure in an effort to induce nucleation ofthe solution within the vials. Results are summarized in Table 3.

As seen in Table 3, the controlled nucleation occurred where thepressure drop was about 7 psi or greater and the nucleation temperature(i.e., initial vial temperature) was between about −4.7° C. and −5.8° C.

TABLE 3 Effect of Depressurization Magnitude Pressure Initial Vial DropDepressurization Vial # Solution Atmos Temperature [° C.] [psi] Outcome1 2.5 mL of 5 wt % mannitol Argon −4.7 7 Nucleation 2 2.5 mL of 5 wt %mannitol Argon −5.1 7 Nucleation 3 2.5 mL of 5 wt % mannitol Argon −5.37 Nucleation 4 2.5 mL of 5 wt % mannitol Argon −5.6 7 No Nucleation 52.5 mL of 5 wt % mannitol Argon −5.6 7 Nucleation 6 2.5 mL of 5 wt %mannitol Argon −5.8 7 Nucleation 7 2.5 mL of 5 wt % mannitol Argon −5.46 No Nucleation 8 2.5 mL of 5 wt % mannitol Argon −5.7 6 No Nucleation 92.5 mL of 5 wt % mannitol Argon −5.8 6 No Nucleation 10 2.5 mL of 5 wt %mannitol Argon −5.1 5 No Nucleation 11 2.5 mL of 5 wt % mannitol Argon−5.4 5 No Nucleation 12 2.5 mL of 5 wt % mannitol Argon −5.5 5 NoNucleation 13 2.5 mL of 5 wt % mannitol Argon −4.7 4 No Nucleation 142.5 mL of 5 wt % mannitol Argon −5.1 4 No Nucleation 15 2.5 mL of 5 wt %mannitol Argon −5.3 4 No Nucleation

Example 4 Controlling the Depressurization Rates

For this example, multiple vials were filled with about 2.5 mL of 5 wt %mannitol solution having a predicted thermodynamic freezing point ofapproximately −0.5° C. For each test run of varying depressurizationtime, the vials were placed on a freeze-dryer shelf in close proximityto one another. As with the earlier described examples, the temperaturesof vials were monitored using surface mounted thermocouples. Like theabove-described examples, the argon atmosphere in the freeze-dryer waspressurized to about 14 psig and the shelf was cooled to obtain vialtemperatures of approximately −5° C. In each test run, the freeze-dryerwas then depressurized at different depressurization rates from 14 psigto atmospheric pressure in an effort to induce nucleation of thesolution within the vials.

To study the effect of depressurization rate or depressurization time, arestricting ball valve was placed on the outlet of the depressurizationcontrol valve at the rear of the freeze-dryer. When the restrictingvalve is completely open, depressurization from about 14 psig to about 0psig is accomplished in approximately 2.5 seconds. By only partiallyclosing the restricting valve, it is possible to variably increase thechamber depressurization time. Using the restricting ball valve, severaltest runs were performed with the freeze-dryer chamber depressurized atdiffering rates to ascertain or determine the effect of depressurizationrate on nucleation. The results are summarized in Table 4.

TABLE 4 Effect of Depressurization Time Initial Vial Pressure TimeDepressurization Vial # Solution Atmos Temp [° C.] Drop [psi] [sec]Outcome 1 2.5 mL of 5 wt % mannitol Argon −4.6 14 300 No Nucleation 22.5 mL of 5 wt % mannitol Argon −5.4 14 300 No Nucleation 3 2.5 mL of 5wt % mannitol Argon −5.8 14 300 No Nucleation 4 2.5 mL of 5 wt %mannitol Argon −4.6 14 200 No Nucleation 5 2.5 mL of 5 wt % mannitolArgon −5.4 14 200 No Nucleation 6 2.5 mL of 5 wt % mannitol Argon −5.414 200 No Nucleation 7 2.5 mL of 5 wt % mannitol Argon −4.6 14 100 NoNucleation 8 2.5 mL of 5 wt % mannitol Argon −5.2 14 100 No Nucleation 92.5 mL of 5 wt % mannitol Argon −5.2 14 100 No Nucleation 10 2.5 mL of 5wt % mannitol Argon −4.7 14 60 No Nucleation 11 2.5 mL of 5 wt %mannitol Argon −5.1 14 60 No Nucleation 12 2.5 mL of 5 wt % mannitolArgon −5.1 14 60 No Nucleation 13 2.5 mL of 5 wt % mannitol Argon −5.114 50 No Nucleation 14 2.5 mL of 5 wt % mannitol Argon −5.3 14 50 NoNucleation 15 2.5 mL of 5 wt % mannitol Argon −4.9 14 50 No Nucleation16 2.5 mL of 5 wt % mannitol Argon −5.4 14 42 No Nucleation 17 2.5 mL of5 wt % mannitol Argon −5.5 14 42 No Nucleation 18 2.5 mL of 5 wt %mannitol Argon −5.0 14 42 No Nucleation 19 2.5 mL of 5 wt % mannitolArgon −5.1 14 32 Nucleation 20 2.5 mL of 5 wt % mannitol Argon −5.7 1432 Nucleation 21 2.5 mL of 5 wt % mannitol Argon −5.6 14 32 Nucleation22 2.5 mL of 5 wt % mannitol Argon −4.7 14 13 Nucleation 23 2.5 mL of 5wt % mannitol Argon −5.3 14 13 Nucleation 24 2.5 mL of 5 wt % mannitolArgon −5.5 14 13 Nucleation

As seen in Table 4, nucleation only occurred where the depressurizationtime was less than 42 seconds, the pressure drop was about 14 psi orgreater and the nucleation temperature (i.e., initial vial temperature)was between about −4.6° C. and about −5.8° C. These results indicatethat the depressurization needs to be accomplished relatively quicklyfor the method to be effective.

Example 5 Controlling the Gas Atmosphere

Again, multiple vials were each filled with about 2.5 mL of 5 wt %mannitol solution and placed on a freeze-dryer shelf in close proximityto one another. As with earlier described examples, the temperature ofthe test vials were monitored using surface mounted thermocouples. Forthe different test runs, the gas atmosphere in the freeze-dryer wasvaried always maintaining a positive pressure of about 14 psig. In thisexample, the freeze-dryer shelf was cooled to obtain vial temperaturesof approximately −5° C. to −7° C. In each test run, the freeze-dryer wasthen rapidly depressurized from about 14 psig to atmospheric pressure inan effort to induce nucleation of the solution within the vials. Theresults are summarized in Table 5.

As seen therein, controlled nucleation occurred in all gas atmospheresexcept for helium gas atmosphere where the pressure drop was about 14psi and the nucleation temperature (i.e., initial vial temperature) wasbetween about −4.7° C. and about −7.4° C. Although not shown in theexamples, it is believed that alternate conditions will likely enablecontrolled nucleation in a helium atmosphere.

TABLE 5 Effect of Gas Atmosphere Composition Initial Vial TemperaturePressure Depressurization Vial # Solution Atmos [° C.] Drop [psi]Outcome 1 2.5 mL of 5 wt % mannitol Argon −4.9 14 Nucleation 2 2.5 mL of5 wt % mannitol Argon −5.2 14 Nucleation 3 2.5 mL of 5 wt % mannitolNitrogen −4.7 14 Nucleation 4 2.5 mL of 5 wt % mannitol Nitrogen −5.1 14Nucleation 5 2.5 mL of 5 wt % mannitol Xenon −4.8 14 Nucleation 6 2.5 mLof 5 wt % mannitol Xenon −5.0 14 Nucleation 7 2.5 mL of 5 wt % mannitolAir −7.4 14 Nucleation 8 2.5 mL of 5 wt % mannitol Air −7.2 14Nucleation 9 2.5 mL of 5 wt % mannitol Helium −5.8 14 No Nucleation 102.5 mL of 5 wt % mannitol Helium −5.5 14 No Nucleation

Example 6 Large Volume Solutions

In this example, six lyophilization bottles (60 mL capacity) were filledwith about 30 mL of 5 wt % mannitol solution having a predictedthermodynamic freezing point of approximately −0.5° C. The sixlyophilization bottles were placed on a freeze-dryer shelf in closeproximity to one another. The temperature of six bottles positioned atdifferent locations in the freeze-dryer shelf was monitored usingsurface mounted thermocouples. The freeze-dryer was pressurized in anargon atmosphere to about 14 psig. The freeze-dryer shelf was thencooled to obtain bottle temperatures of near −5° C. The freeze-dryer wasthen depressurized from 14 psig to about atmospheric pressure in lessthan five seconds to induce nucleation of the solution within thebottles. The results are summarized in Table 6.

In a separate experiment, a plastic bulk freeze-drying tray (GoreLYOGUARD, 1800 mL capacity) was filled with about 1000 mL of 5 wt %mannitol solution. The tray was obtained pre-cleaned to meet USP lowparticulate requirements. The tray was placed on a freeze-dryer shelf,and the temperature of the tray was monitored by a thermocouple mountedon the exterior surface of the tray near the center of one side. Thefreeze-dryer shelf was then cooled to obtain a tray temperature of near−7° C. The freeze-dryer was then depressurized from 14 psig to aboutatmospheric pressure in less than five seconds to induce nucleation ofthe solution within the tray. The results are also summarized in Table6.

Like the above-described examples, all containers nucleated and beganfreezing immediately after depressurization. Also like theabove-described examples, the nucleation temperatures (i.e., ContainerTemperatures) in this example were very much controllable to be somewhatnear the thermodynamic freezing temperature of the solution. Moreimportantly, this example illustrates that the present method allowscontrol of the nucleation to occur in larger volume solutions andvarious container formats. It should be noted that one would expect theefficacy of the depressurization method to improve as formulation volumeincreases, because the nucleation event is more likely to occur whenmore molecules are present to aggregate and form critical nuclei.

TABLE 6 Effect of Solution Volume and Container Type ContainerTemperature Pressure Depressurization Container Solution Atmos [° C.]Drop [psi] Outcome Bottle #1 30 mL of 5 wt % mannitol Argon −5.3 14Nucleation Bottle #2 30 mL of 5 wt % mannitol Argon −5.1 14 NucleationBottle #3 30 mL of 5 wt % mannitol Argon −5.9 14 Nucleation Bottle #4 30mL of 5 wt % mannitol Argon −5.2 14 Nucleation Bottle #5 30 mL of 5 wt %mannitol Argon −5.9 14 Nucleation Bottle #6 30 mL of 5 wt % mannitolArgon −6.1 14 Nucleation Tray 1000 mL of 5 wt % mannitol  Argon −6.9 14Nucleation

Example 7 Dynamic Cooling vs. Equilibrated Cooling

The present methods of controlling nucleation can be used in variousmodes. Examples 1-6, described above, each demonstrate the aspect ofcontrolling the nucleation temperature of a lyophilization solution thatis essentially equilibrated at a temperature below its thermodynamicfreezing point (i.e., very slowly changing temperature). This exampledemonstrates that nucleation can also occur at a temperature below thethermodynamic freezing point in a dynamic cooling environment (i.e., thesolution is undergoing rapid changes in temperature).

In this example, vials 1 through 6 represent the samples described abovewith reference to Example 2. In addition, three separate vials (Vials7-9) were also filled with 2.5 mL of 5 wt % mannitol solution. In aseparate test run, the three additional vials were placed on afreeze-dryer shelf in close proximity to one another. The freeze-dryershelf was cooled rapidly towards a final shelf temperature of −45° C.When one of the vials reached a temperature of about −5° C., as measuredby the surface mounted thermocouples, the freeze-dryer was depressurizedrapidly from about 14 psig to 0 psig in an effort to induce nucleation.All three vials nucleated and began freezing immediately afterdepressurization. The vial temperatures decreased significantly tobetween −6.8° C. and −9.9° C. prior to nucleation as a result of thedynamic cooling environment. Comparative results are summarized in Table7 below.

TABLE 7 Test Results - Effect of Dynamic Cooling on NucleationNucleation Pressure Depressurization Vial # Solution Mode Temp [° C.]Drop [psi] Outcome 1 2.5 mL of 5 wt % mannitol Equilibrated −4.2 14Nucleation 2 2.5 mL of 5 wt % mannitol Equilibrated −4.4 14 Nucleation 32.5 mL of 5 wt % mannitol Equilibrated −4.6 14 Nucleation 4 2.5 mL of 5wt % mannitol Equilibrated −4.4 14 Nucleation 5 2.5 mL of 5 wt %mannitol Equilibrated −4.6 14 Nucleation 6 2.5 mL of 5 wt % mannitolEquilibrated −5.1 14 Nucleation 7 2.5 mL of 5 wt % mannitol Dynamic −6.814 Nucleation 8 2.5 mL of 5 wt % mannitol Dynamic −7.2 14 Nucleation 92.5 mL of 5 wt % mannitol Dynamic −9.9 14 Nucleation

The efficacy of the present methods for controlling nucleation inlyophilization solutions equilibrated in a given temperature range orlyophilization solutions being dynamically cooled, provides the end-userwith two potential modes of application with different benefits andtrade-offs. By allowing the lyophilization solutions to equilibrate, therange of nucleation temperatures will be narrow or minimized to theperformance limits of the freeze-dryer itself. The equilibration stepmay require extra time to achieve relative to conventional or dynamicfreezing protocols where the chamber and vial temperatures are droppedto less than about −40° C. in one step. However, employing theequilibration step should yield much improved nucleation uniformityacross all vials or containers as well as realization of the otherbenefits associated with precisely controlling the nucleationtemperature of the material.

Alternatively, if equilibrating the material or lyophilization solutiontemperatures is undesirable, one may simply implement thedepressurization step at an appropriate time during the normal freezingor dynamic cooling protocol. Depressurization during a dynamic cool downwill produce a wider spread in nucleation temperatures for the materialwithin the lyophilization containers, but will add minimal time to thefreezing protocol and still allow one to mitigate the problems ofextreme sub-cooling.

Example 8 Effect of Different Excipients

The present method of controlling or inducing nucleation in a materialcan be used to control the nucleation temperature of sub-cooledsolutions containing different lyophilization excipients. This exampledemonstrates the use of the present methods with the followingexcipients: mannitol; hydroxyethyl starch (HES); polyethylene glycol(PEG); polyvinyl pyrrolidone (PVP); dextran; glycine; sorbitol; sucrose;and trehalose. For each excipient, two vials were filled with 2.5 mL ofa solution containing 5 wt % of the excipient. The vials were placed ona freeze-dryer shelf in close proximity to one another. The freeze-dryerwas pressurized in an argon atmosphere to about 14 psig. Thefreeze-dryer shelf was cooled to obtain vial temperatures near −3° C.and then depressurized rapidly to induce nucleation. Results aresummarized in Table 8.

TABLE 8 Effect of Different Lyophilization Excipients Initial VialPressure Temperature Drop Depressurization Vial # Solution/ExcipientAtmos [° C.] [psi] Outcome 1 2.5 mL of 5 wt % mannitol Argon −3.3 14Nucleation 2 2.5 mL of 5 wt % mannitol Argon −3.0 14 Nucleation 3 2.5 mLof 5 wt % HES Argon −3.1 14 Nucleation 4 2.5 mL of 5 wt % HES Argon −3.714 Nucleation 5 2.5 mL of 5 wt % PEG Argon −3.8 14 Nucleation 6 2.5 mLof 5 wt % PEG Argon −3.4 14 Nucleation 7 2.5 mL of 5 wt % PVP Argon −3.514 Nucleation 8 2.5 mL of 5 wt % PVP Argon −3.3 14 Nucleation 9 2.5 mLof 5 wt % dextran Argon −4.0 14 Nucleation 10 2.5 mL of 5 wt % dextranArgon −3.1 14 Nucleation 11 2.5 mL of 5 wt % glycine Argon −3.8 14Nucleation 12 2.5 mL of 5 wt % glycine Argon −3.9 14 Nucleation 13 2.5mL of 5 wt % sorbitol Argon −3.6 14 Nucleation 14 2.5 mL of 5 wt %sorbitol Argon −3.4 14 Nucleation 15 2.5 mL of 5 wt % sucrose Argon −3.314 Nucleation 16 2.5 mL of 5 wt % sucrose Argon −3.4 14 Nucleation 172.5 mL of 5 wt % trehalose Argon −3.7 14 Nucleation 18 2.5 mL of 5 wt %trehalose Argon −3.1 14 Nucleation

Example 9 Controlling Nucleation of Protein Solutions

The methods disclosed herein can be used to control the nucleationtemperature of sub-cooled protein solutions without negative or adverseeffects on protein solubility or enzymatic activity. Two proteins,bovine serum albumin (BSA) and lactate dehydrogenase (LDH) were used inthis example.

BSA was dissolved in 5 wt % mannitol at a concentration of 10 mg/mL.Three lyophilization vials were filled with 2.5 mL of the BSA-mannitolsolution and placed on a freeze-dryer shelf in close proximity to oneanother. The freeze-dryer was pressurized in an argon atmosphere toabout 14 psig. The freeze-dryer shelf was cooled to obtain vialtemperatures near −5° C. The freeze-dryer was depressurized rapidly toinduce nucleation. All vials of BSA solution nucleated and beganfreezing immediately after depressurization. No precipitation of theprotein was observed upon thawing.

The LDH proteins were obtained from two different suppliers and forpurposes of clarity are designated as LDH-1 or LDH-2 to distinguish thetwo distinct batches. LDH-1 was dissolved in 5 wt % mannitol at aconcentration of 1 mg/mL. Six lyophilization vials were filled with 2.5mL of the LDH-1/mannitol solution and placed on a freeze-dryer shelf inclose proximity to one another. The freeze-dryer was pressurized in anargon atmosphere to about 14 psig. The freeze-dryer shelf was cooledstarting from room temperature to obtain vial temperatures near −4° C.The freeze-dryer was then depressurized rapidly to induce nucleation.All vials nucleated and began freezing immediately afterdepressurization. The vials were held at this state for about 15minutes. The freeze-dryer shelf was then cooled at a rate ofapproximately 1° C./min to obtain vial temperatures near −45° C. andheld for an additional 15 minutes to ensure completion of the freezingprocess. After the freezing step, the freeze-dryer shelf was then warmedat a rate of about 1° C./min to raise the vial temperatures to near 5°C. No precipitation of the protein was observed upon thawing. The vialcontents were assayed for enzymatic activity, and the results werecompared to a control sample of unfrozen LDH-1/mannitol solution.

As part of Example 9, the depressurized nucleated samples of theLDH-1/mannitol solution were compared to stochastically nucleatedsamples. In the stochastically nucleated samples of LDH-1, the freezingprocedure was repeated without pressurization and depressurization andwithout the argon atmosphere. Specifically, LDH-1 was dissolved in 5 wt% mannitol at a concentration of 1 mg/mL. Six lyophilization vials werefilled with 2.5 mL of the LDH-1/mannitol solution and placed on afreeze-dryer shelf in close proximity to one another. The freeze-dryershelf was cooled starting from room temperature at a rate of about 1°C./min to obtain vial temperatures near −45° C. and held for 15 minutesto ensure completion of the freezing process. After the freezing step,the freeze-dryer shelf was warmed at a rate of about 1° C./min to raisethe vial temperatures to near 5° C. No precipitation of the protein wasobserved upon thawing. The vial contents were assayed for enzymaticactivity, and the results were compared to the same control sample ofunfrozen LDH-1/mannitol solution. Also as part of Example 9, theexperiments described above for LDH-1 were repeated using LDH-2. Theonly difference was a nucleation temperature near −3° C. for LDH-2rather than −4° C. for LDH-1.

As seen in Table 9, the controlled nucleation and freezing processachieved via depressurization clearly does not decrease enzymaticactivity relative to a comparable stochastic nucleation and freezingprotocol. In fact, the controlled nucleation process achieved viadepressurization appears to better preserve enzyme activity with a meanactivity loss of only 17.8% for LDH-1 and 26.5% for LDH-2 compared tothe mean activity loss of 35.9% for LDH-1 and 41.3% for LDH-2 afterstochastic nucleation.

TABLE 9 Controlling the Nucleation Temperature of Sub-Cooled ProteinSolutions Initial Vial Pressure Enzyme Temperature Drop ActivityDepressurization Vial # Solution Atmos [° C.] [psi] Loss[%] Outcome 12.5 mL of BSA solution Argon −4.9 14 — Nucleation 2 2.5 mL of BSAsolution Argon −4.3 14 — Nucleation 3 2.5 mL of BSA solution Argon −5.314 — Nucleation 4 2.5 mL of LDH-1 solution Argon −3.8 14  9.0 Nucleation5 2.5 mL of LDH-1 solution Argon −4.0 14 16.2 Nucleation 6 2.5 mL ofLDH-1 solution Argon −3.7 14 18.4 Nucleation 7 2.5 mL of LDH-1 solutionArgon −4.0 14 23.4 Nucleation 8 2.5 mL of LDH-1 solution Argon −3.9 1418.5 Nucleation 9 2.5 mL of LDH-1 solution Argon −4.0 14 21.2 Nucleation10 2.5 mL of LDH-1 solution Air −10.4 0 35.7 Nucleation 11 2.5 mL ofLDH-1 solution Air −16.5 0 35.4 Nucleation 12 2.5 mL of LDH-1 solutionAir −15.5 0 36.1 Nucleation 13 2.5 mL of LDH-1 solution Air −10.5 0 43.9Nucleation 14 2.5 mL of LDH-1 solution Air −9.8 0 24.9 Nucleation 15 2.5mL of LDH-1 solution Air −11.0 0 39.2 Nucleation 16 2.5 mL of LDH-2solution Argon −3.1 14 29.9 Nucleation 17 2.5 mL of LDH-2 solution Argon−2.9 14 18.9 Nucleation 18 2.5 mL of LDH-2 solution Argon −3.1 14 23.3Nucleation 19 2.5 mL of LDH-2 solution Argon −2.7 14 19.6 Nucleation 202.5 mL of LDH-2 solution Argon −3.1 14 32.1 Nucleation 21 2.5 mL ofLDH-2 solution Argon −2.6 14 35.2 Nucleation 22 2.5 mL of LDH-2 solutionAir −5.0 0 38.3 Nucleation 23 2.5 mL of LDH-2 solution Air −5.5 0 40.0Nucleation 24 2.5 mL of LDH-2 solution Air −2.3 0 36.5 Nucleation 25 2.5mL of LDH-2 solution Air −3.8 0 42.0 Nucleation 26 2.5 mL of LDH-2solution Air −5.1 0 50.2 Nucleation 27 2.5 mL of LDH-2 solution Air −5.90 40.6 Nucleation

It should be noted that the stochastic nucleation temperatures observedfor LDH-2 were substantially warmer than the stochastic nucleationtemperatures for LDH-1. This difference may be due to some contaminantacting as a nucleating agent in the LDH-2. The stochastic nucleationtemperatures are much closer to the controlled nucleation temperaturesfor LDH-2 compared to LDH-1, yet the improvements in retention of enzymeactivity obtained via controlled nucleation for LDH-1 and LDH-2 aresimilar at 18.1% and 14.8%, respectively. This result suggests that theimprovements in retention of enzyme activity can be partially attributedto the characteristics of the controlled nucleation process itself, notjust to the prescribed warmer nucleation temperatures obtained viadepressurization.

Example 10 Reducing Primary Drying Time

A 5 wt % mannitol solution was prepared by mixing about 10.01 grams ofmannitol with about 190.07 grams of water. Vials were filled with 2.5 mLof the 5 wt % mannitol solution. The vials were weighed empty and withthe solution to determine the mass of water added to the vials. Thetwenty vials were placed in a rack on a freeze-dryer shelf in closeproximity to one another. The temperatures of six vials were monitoredusing surface mounted thermocouples; all monitored vials were surroundedby other vials to improve uniformity of vial behavior. The freeze-dryerwas pressurized to about 14 psig in a controlled gas atmosphere of argongas. The freeze-dryer shelf was cooled from room temperature to about−6° C. to obtain vial temperatures of between approximately −1° C. and−2° C. The freeze-dryer was then depressurized from about 14 psig toabout atmospheric pressure in less than five seconds to inducenucleation of the solution within the vials. All vials observed visuallyor monitored via thermocouples nucleated and began freezing immediatelyafter depressurization.

The shelf temperature was then lowered rapidly to about −45° C. tocomplete the freezing process. Once all vial temperatures were about−40° C. or less, the freeze-drying chamber was evacuated and the processof primary drying (i.e., sublimation) was initiated. During this dryingprocess, the freeze-dryer shelf was warmed to about −14° C. via a onehour ramp and held at that temperature for 16 hours. The condenser wasmaintained at about −60° C. throughout the drying process. Primarydrying was stopped by turning off the vacuum pump and backfilling thechamber with argon to atmospheric pressure. The vials were promptlyremoved from the freeze-dryer and weighed to determine how much waterwas lost during the primary drying process.

In a separate experiment as part of Example 10, other vials were filledwith 2.5 mL of the same 5 wt % mannitol solution. The vials were weighedempty and with the solution to determine the mass of water added to thevials. The vials were loaded into the freeze-dryer in the same mannerdescribed above, and the temperatures of six vials were once againmonitored using surface-mounted thermocouples. The freeze-dryer shelfwas cooled rapidly from room temperature to about −45° C. to freeze thevials. Nucleation occurred stochastically between about −15° C. andabout −18° C. during the cooling step. Once all vials temperatures wereabout −40° C. or less, the vials were dried in a manner identical to themethod described above. Upon conclusion of primary drying, the sampleswere promptly removed from the freeze-dryer and weighed to determine howmuch water was lost during the primary drying process.

TABLE 10 Increasing the Nucleation Temperature Improves Primary DryingInitial Vial Pressure Water Temp Drop Loss Depressurization Vial #Solution Atmos [° C.] [psi] [%] Outcome 1 2.5 mL of 5 wt % mannitolArgon −1.3 14 89.9 Nucleation 2 2.5 mL of 5 wt % mannitol Argon −1.9 1485.2 Nucleation 3 2.5 mL of 5 wt % mannitol Argon −1.3 14 87.1Nucleation 4 2.5 mL of 5 wt % mannitol Argon −2.3 14 88.8 Nucleation 52.5 mL of 5 wt % mannitol Argon −2.1 14 85.0 Nucleation 6 2.5 mL of 5 wt% mannitol Argon −1.1 14 80.7 Nucleation 7 2.5 mL of 5 wt % mannitol Air−15.7 0 65.7 — 8 2.5 mL of 5 wt % mannitol Air −16.7 0 66.9 — 9 2.5 mLof 5 wt % mannitol Air −14.5 0 64.6 — 10 2.5 mL of 5 wt % mannitol Air−15.6 0 64.7 — 11 2.5 mL of 5 wt % mannitol Air −16.5 0 64.1 — 12 2.5 mLof 5 wt % mannitol Air −17.9 0 65.7 —

Results of the freeze-drying process with controlled nucleation andstochastic nucleation are summarized in Table 10. It should be notedthat these two experiments only differ in the addition of the controllednucleation via depressurization step to one experiment. As seen in Table10, the controlled nucleation process achieved via depressurizationallows nucleation at very low degrees of sub-cooling, between about−1.1° C. and −2.3° C. in this example. The much warmer nucleationtemperatures for the controlled nucleation case compared to thestochastic nucleation case yields an ice structure and resultantlyophilized cake with dramatically improved drying properties. For thesame amount of drying time, the vials nucleated using the discloseddepressurization methods between about −1.1° C. and −2.3° C. lost anaverage of 86.1% of their water while the vials nucleated stochasticallybetween about −14.5° C. and −17.9° C. only lost an average of 65.3%.Hence, the vials nucleated stochastically would require much moreprimary drying time to achieve the same degree of water loss as thevials nucleated in a controlled manner in accordance with the presentlydisclosed methods. The improvement in drying time is likely attributedto the formation of larger ice crystals at warmer nucleationtemperatures. These larger ice crystals leave behind larger pores uponsublimation, and the larger pores offer less resistance to the flow ofwater vapor during further sublimation.

INDUSTRIAL APPLICABILITY

The present method provides an improved method for controlling thetemperature and/or time at which sub-cooled materials, namely liquids orsolutions, nucleate and then freeze. Although this application focusesin part on freeze-drying, a similar problem occurs for any materialprocessing step that involves a nucleated phase transition. Examples ofsuch processes include the crystallization of polymers and metals frommelts, crystallization of materials from supersaturated solutions,crystallization of proteins, artificial snow production, food freezing,freeze concentration, fractional crystallization, cryo-preservation, orcondensation of vapors to liquids.

The most immediate benefit of controlling the nucleation temperature ofa liquid or solution is the ability to control the number and size ofthe solid domains produced by the phase transition. In freezing water,for example, the nucleation temperature directly controls the size andnumber of ice crystals formed. Generally speaking, the ice crystals arefewer in number and larger in size when the nucleation temperature iswarmer.

The ability to control the number and size of the solid domains producedby a phase transition may provide additional benefits. In afreeze-drying process, for example, the number and size of the icecrystals strongly influences the drying properties of the lyophilizedcake. Larger ice crystals produced by warmer nucleation temperaturesleave behind larger pores upon sublimation, and the larger pores offerless resistance to the flow of water vapor during subsequentsublimation. Hence, the present methods provide a means of increasingprimary drying (i.e., sublimation) rates in freeze-drying processes byincreasing the nucleation temperature.

Another possible benefit may be realized in applications where sensitivematerials are preserved via freezing processes (i.e., cryopreserved).For example, a biological material including but not limited to,mammalian tissue samples (e.g., cord blood, tissue biopsy, egg and spermcells, etc.), cell lines (e.g., mammalian, yeast, prokaryotic, fungal,etc.) and biological molecules (e.g., proteins, DNA, RNA and subclassesthereof) frozen in an aqueous solution may experience various stressesduring the freezing process that may impair the function or activity ofthe material. Ice formation may physically disrupt the material orcreate severe changes in the interfacial bonding, osmotic forces, soluteconcentrations, etc. experienced by the material. Since nucleationcontrols the structure and kinetics of ice formation, it cansignificantly influence these stresses. The presently disclosed methodstherefore provides a unique means of mitigating stresses associated withcryopreservation processes and enhancing the recovery of function oractivity from cryopreserved materials. The present methods alsorepresent improvement over conventional nucleation control methods(e.g., seeding or contact with cold surfaces) used to initiateextracellular ice formation in two-step cryopreservation algorithmsdesigned for living cells.

The present methods may be also applied to complex solutions or mixturescontaining several constituents both in cryopresevation andlyophilization applications. These formulations are often solutions withan aqueous, organic, or mixed aqueous-organic solvent containing apharmaceutically active ingredient (e.g., a synthetic chemical, protein,peptide, or vaccine) and optionally, one or more mitigatingconstituents, including bulking agents that help prevent physical lossof the active ingredient during drying (e.g., dextrose, glucose,glycine, lactose, maltose, mannitol, polyvinyl pyrrolidone, sodiumchloride, and sorbitol); buffering agents or toxicity modifiers thathelp maintain the appropriate environmental pH or toxicity for theactive constituent (e.g., acetic acid, benzoic acid, citric acid,hydrochloric acid, lactic acid, maleic acid, phosphoric acid, tartaricacid, and the sodium salts of the aforementioned acids); stabilizingagents that help preserve the structure and function of the activeconstituent during processing or in its final liquid or dried form(e.g., alanine, dimethylsulfoxide, glycerol, glycine, human serumalbumin, polyethylene glycol, lysine, polysorbate, sorbitol, sucrose,and trehalose); agents that modify the glass transition behavior of theformulation (e.g., polyethylene glycol and sugars), and anti-oxidantsthat protect the active constituent from degradation (e.g., ascorbate,sodium bisulfite, sodium formaldehyde, sodium metabisulfite, sodiumsulfite, sulfoxylate, and thioglycerol).

Since nucleation is typically a random process, a plurality of the samematerial subjected to identical processing conditions might nucleate atdifferent temperatures. As a result, the properties of those materialsthat depend on nucleation behavior will likely differ despite theidentical processing conditions. The disclosed methods provide a meansfor controlling the nucleation temperatures of a plurality of materialssimultaneously and thereby offers a way to increase the uniformity ofthose product properties that depend on nucleation behavior. In atypical freeze-drying process, for example, the same solution inseparate vials may nucleate stochastically over a wide range oftemperatures, and as a result, the final freeze-dried products maypossess significant variability in critical properties like residualmoisture, activity and reconstitution time. By controlling thenucleation temperature via the presently disclosed process, thevial-to-vial uniformity of product properties from a freeze-drying canprocess can be dramatically improved.

The ability to control the nucleation behavior of a material may alsoprovide substantial benefit in reducing the time necessary to develop anindustrial process that hinges upon a normally uncontrolled nucleationevent. For example, it often takes many months to develop a successfulfreeze-drying cycle that can be accomplished in a reasonable amount oftime, yields desired product properties within the specified uniformity,and preserves sufficient activity of the active pharmaceuticalingredient (API). By providing a means of controlling nucleation andthereby potentially improving primary drying time, product uniformity,and API activity, the present methods should dramatically reduce thetime necessary to develop successful freeze-drying protocols.

In particular, the potential benefits of the present nucleation processprovide increased flexibility in specifying the composition of theformulation to be freeze-dried. Since controlled nucleation can betterpreserve the API during the freezing step, users should be able tominimize the addition of mitigating constituents (e.g., stabilizingagents) to the formulation or chose simpler combinations of formulationconstituents to achieve combined stability and processing goals.Synergistic benefits may arise in cases where controlled nucleationminimizes the use of stabilizing agents or other mitigating constituentsthat inherently lengthen primary drying times (e.g, by decreasing glasstransition temperatures of aqueous solutions).

The disclosed methods are particularly well-suited for large scaleproduction or manufacturing operations since it can be conducted usingthe same equipment and process parameters that can easily be scaled oradapted to manufacture a wide range of products. The process providesfor the nucleation of materials using a process where all manipulationscan be carried out in a single chamber (e.g., a freeze-dryer) and wherethe process does not require use of a vacuum, use of additives,vibration, electrofreezing or the like to induce nucleation.

In contrast to the prior art, the present method does not add anythingto the lyophilized product. It only requires that the materials, (e.g.,liquids in the vials), be held initially at a specified pressure under agas environment and that the pressure is rapidly reduced to a lowerpressure. Any applied gas will be removed from the vials during thelyophilization cycle. The vials or their contents are not contacted ortouched with anything except the gas. Simple manipulation of the ambientpressure and gas environment is sufficient on its own to achieve thatgoal. By relying only on ambient pressure change to induce nucleation,the present method disclosed herein uniformly and simultaneously affectsall vials within a freeze-dryer.

The present embodiment is also less expensive and easier to implementand maintain than prior art methods of influencing nucleation inmaterials in lyophilization applications. The present method enablessignificantly faster primary drying in lyophilization processes, therebyreducing processing costs for freeze-dried pharmaceuticals. The presentmethod produces much more uniform lyophilized products than prior artmethods, thereby reducing product losses and creating barriers to entryfor processors unable to meet tighter uniformity specifications. Thismethod achieves these benefits without contaminating the lyophilizedproduct. Greater process control should lead to an improved product andshortened process times.

From the foregoing, it should be appreciated that the present inventionthus provides a method of inducing nucleation in a material and/or amethod of freezing material. Various modifications, changes, andvariations of the present methods will be apparent to a person skilledin the art and it is to be understood that such modifications, changes,and variations are to be included within the purview of this applicationand the spirit and scope of the claims.

What is claimed is:
 1. A method of inducing nucleation of freezing in amaterial within a chamber comprising the steps of: bringing the materialto a temperature near or below a phase transition temperature in anatmosphere within the chamber pressurized above ambient pressure; anddecreasing the pressure of the atmosphere within the chamber proximatethe material in 40 seconds or less or at a pressure rate drop, ΔP/Δt,greater than about 0.2 psi per second, to uniformly induce nucleation ofthe phase transition in the material.
 2. The method of claim 1 whereinthe step of bringing the material to a temperature below a phasetransition temperature in the atmosphere within the chamber pressurizedabove ambient pressure further comprises cooling the material within thepressurized chamber to a metastable state.
 3. The method of claim 1further comprising the step of cooling of the nucleated material afterdepressurization to or below a final temperature to further the freezingof the material.
 4. The method of claim 1 wherein depressurization ofthe chamber is initiated when the material attains a desired nucleationtemperature.
 5. The method of claim 1 wherein depressurization of thechamber is initiated at a desired time after the temperature of thematerial reaches the phase transition temperature or below.
 6. Themethod of claim 1 wherein the material is selected from the groupconsisting of gases, liquids, solutions, suspensions, gels, mixtures, orcomponents within a suspension, solution or mixture.
 7. The method ofclaim 1 wherein the material is a solution and the phase transitiontemperature is the thermodynamic freezing point of the solution.
 8. Themethod of claim 6 wherein the material further comprises abiopharmaceutical material, a pharmaceutical material, a chemicalmaterial, a biological material, a foodstuff or combinations thereof. 9.The method of claim 1 wherein the pressurized atmosphere comprisesargon, nitrogen, helium, air, water vapor, oxygen, carbon dioxide, neon,xenon, krypton, hydrogen, or mixtures thereof.
 10. The method of claim 1wherein the material is brought to a temperature ranging from the phasetransition temperature to about 20° C. below the phase transitiontemperature prior to depressurization.
 11. The method of claim 1 whereinthe material is brought to a temperature ranging from the phasetransition temperature to about 5° C. below the phase transitiontemperature prior to depressurization.
 12. The method of claim 1 whereinthe pressure is decreased by an amount equal to or greater than about 14psi.
 13. The method of claim 1 wherein the pressure is decreased by anamount greater than about 7 psi.
 14. The method of claim 1 wherein thepressure is decreased such that an absolute pressure ratio, P_(i)/P_(f),is about 1.2 or greater.
 15. The method of claim 1 wherein the materialcontains a component selected from the group consisting of live viruses;attenuated viruses; nucleic acids; monoclonal antibodies; polyclonalantibodies; biomolecules; nonpeptide analogues; peptides; or proteins.16. A method of controlling the freezing process of a material in aplurality of vials or containers within a chamber comprising the stepsof: cooling the material at a prescribed cooling rate in the chamberpressurized above ambient pressure; decreasing the pressure in thepressurized chamber in 40 seconds or less or at a pressure rate drop,ΔP/Δt, greater than about 0.2 psi per second, to uniformly nucleatefreezing within the material in the plurality of vials or containers;and continuing cooling of the nucleated material in the plurality ofvials or containers to a prescribed final temperature to further freezethe material.
 17. The method of claim 16 wherein depressurization isinitiated when the material in the plurality of vials or containersattains a desired nucleation temperature.
 18. The method of claim 16wherein depressurization is initiated a desired time after initiation ofthe initial cooling step and when the temperature of the material in theplurality of vials or containers reaches the phase transitiontemperature or below.
 19. A solidification process of a materialdisposed in a plurality of vials or containers within a chambercomprising the steps of: bringing the material in the plurality of vialsor containers to a temperature near or below a phase transitiontemperature in the chamber pressurized above ambient pressure;decreasing the pressure in the chamber in 40 seconds or less or at apressure rate drop, ΔP/Δt, greater than about 0.2 psi per second, touniformly induce nucleation of solidification within the material in theplurality of vials; and cooling of the nucleated material in theplurality of vial or containers to a prescribed final temperature tofurther solidification.
 20. The solidification process of claim 19wherein the material in the plurality of vials or containers is asolution having one or more dissolved substances contained therein andwherein the step of decreasing the pressure in the chamber furthercomprises decreasing the pressure in the chamber to uniformly inducenucleation of solidification of one or more of the substances in thesolution.
 21. A method of controlling the condensation process of a gaswithin a chamber comprising the steps of: cooling the gas to atemperature near or below a phase transition temperature in the chamberpressurized above ambient pressure; decreasing the pressure of thepressurized chamber in 40 seconds or less or at a pressure rate drop,ΔP/Δt, greater than about 0.2 psi per second, to induce nucleation ofcondensation within the gas; and continuing cooling of the nucleated gasto a prescribed final temperature to further condensation.